Introduction
In the aftermath of World War II, Japan underwent a dramatic transformation, guided by the American occupation. The initial aim was to rebuild Japan into a peaceful, democratic nation. However, the rise of the Cold War shifted America’s priorities, leading to a renegotiation of the terms of engagement. By 1960, Japan faced a critical juncture, torn between its post-war optimism and the pressures of Cold War anti-communism. The events of this year—marked by political upheaval and social unrest—ultimately set the course for modern Japan. This is the story of how Japan navigated its identity crisis and chose a path that emphasized stability and economic growth over radical political change.
The American Occupation and Initial Reforms
Following Japan's unconditional surrender, the American occupation, led by General Douglas MacArthur, began with ambitious goals. The focus was on dismantling the old, hierarchical structures and establishing a liberal democracy.
Key reforms included:
•Arresting war criminals and holding them accountable.
•Forcing Emperor Hirohito to renounce his divinity.
•Enacting a progressive constitution that guaranteed equality and workers' rights.
•Redistributing large farms and breaking up monopolistic corporations.
One of the most significant changes was the inclusion of Article 9 in the constitution, which renounced war as a sovereign right and prohibited the maintenance of land, sea, and air forces. These measures aimed to transform Japan into a peaceful and democratic society, but they also stirred discontent among some segments of the population.
The Cold War Shift and the US-Japan Security Treaty
The rise of communism and the onset of the Cold War led to a significant shift in American policy. The U.S. now needed Japan as a stable, anti-communist ally in Asia. This shift resulted in:
•Pardoning many war-era leaders to re-enter politics.
•Purging communists from the government.
•Reversing progressive policies that favored organized labor and the break-up of monopolies.
•Allowing the formation of the Japan Self-Defense Force.
As a condition for ending the occupation, the U.S. proposed a security treaty that allowed American military forces to be stationed in Japan. This treaty became a major point of contention, as it did not obligate the U.S. to defend Japan in case of an attack and had no expiration date.
The Identity Crisis: Two Paths for Japan
By the end of the American occupation in 1952, many of the initial reforms aimed at restoring Japan's "security, dignity, and self-respect" had been undermined. The security treaty caused an identity crisis, with Japan torn between post-war optimism and Cold War pessimism. This division highlighted the fundamental question of what kind of nation Japan would become.
The Rise of Nobusuke Kishi
In 1960, the dominant political force was the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), a conservative super-party formed through a merger orchestrated in part by the CIA. Nobusuke Kishi, a war criminal and former minister in the wartime government, headed the LDP and became Prime Minister in 1957. Kishi had two primary goals:
1.Revise the constitution to eliminate Article 9 and remilitarize Japan.
2.Renegotiate the security treaty with America.
While treaty renegotiation was widely supported, revising the constitution was not. Many Japanese citizens opposed remilitarization and feared a return to the past. Kishi's elitist, arrogant, and corrupt nature further fueled opposition.
The 1960 Anpo Protests
Kishi's attempt to force through legislation expanding police powers ignited widespread public dissent. By January 1960, despite improved treaty terms, mass resistance was guaranteed. The protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty, known as the Anpo protests, grew in scale and intensity.
Key events during the protests:
•Opposition parties blockading the Diet to prevent a vote on extending the session.
•Kishi calling in the police to physically remove opposition members from the Diet.
•Kishi forcing a vote on the treaty with only his party present, resulting in its passage.
•Massive daily protests involving students, workers, and even conservative citizens.
•The assault on Eisenhower's Press Secretary, Jim Hagerty, by protestors.
•The death of Michiko Kanba, a female student, during a protest.
•Eisenhower canceling his visit to Japan.
Despite the widespread opposition and turmoil, the upper house of the Diet remained silent, and the treaty was ratified on June 19.
The Political Fallout and the Rise of Hayato Ikeda
The ratification of the treaty was a victory for the conservative side of Japan's identity crisis. However, the opposition had also scored significant wins: Eisenhower backed out, and Kishi resigned. The political landscape remained polarized.
Hayato Ikeda, Kishi's Minister for International Trade and Industry, emerged as the new leader of the LDP. Initially seen as an "empty shirt" with no strong base of support, Ikeda was chosen as a temporary figure until the next election.
The Assassination of Inejiro Asanuma
The assassination of Inejiro Asanuma, the leader of the Socialist Party, on October 12, 1960, shocked the nation. Asanuma, known for his radical views and connections with Chinese communists, was a popular figure who connected with the public in stark contrast to Kishi. He was murdered during a televised debate by a 17-year-old right-wing radical.
Ikeda's Transformation and Policy Shift
Ikeda's response to Asanuma's assassination marked a turning point in his leadership. He delivered an impassioned eulogy for Asanuma, demonstrating a commitment to the Japanese public. Ikeda underwent a personal transformation, adopting a more approachable style and distancing himself from the elitist image of his predecessors.
Ikeda shifted the LDP's platform, focusing on economic growth and social issues:
•Promising to double the national income within a decade.
•Abstaining from golf and lavish parties.
•Touring the country to discuss food prices and unemployment.
Ikeda's Legacy: Stability and Economic Growth
In the 1960 election, the LDP gained seats, and Ikeda kept his promises. His policies led to Japan's national income doubling in just seven years. Ikeda's most lasting legacy was his abandonment of the LDP's platform of constitutional revision. Article 9 remained, and Japan did not remilitarize.
Ikeda's moderation of the LDP and his focus on economic stability resulted in a political system dominated by the LDP. This stability facilitated Japan's economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s.
The Tradeoff: Opportunity vs. Stability
The events of 1960 and Ikeda's subsequent policies highlight a fundamental tradeoff between opportunity and stability. Societies must balance the desire for political choice and possibilities with the need for stability and safety.
•Chaos (far left): Offers boundless opportunity but comes with instability and the threat of violence.
•Autocracy (far right): Provides stability and consistency but limits political horizons.
•Liberal Democracy: Attempts to straddle the difference by providing democratic means within constraints.
In 1960, Japan chose stability and economic prosperity, which in turn narrowed its political horizons. This choice has resulted in a system where political disputes are often resolved quietly, with limited public dissent.
Conclusion
The year 1960 was a critical juncture for Japan, shaping its identity and trajectory for decades to come. Faced with political instability and the resurgence of conflict, Japan chose a path of stability and economic growth. While this choice brought significant benefits, it also came with tradeoffs in terms of political freedom and public dissent. The story of Japan in 1960 serves as a reminder of the complex choices nations face in balancing opportunity and stability.
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